Census Techniques and Strategies for Finding Elusive Ancestors

U.S. federal census records are a major source of genealogical information. Few records provide as much detail about a person or family as a census. They also supply researchers with important clues that can lead them to other sources. As a result, they are often one of the first record types consulted.

In the past, researchers relied heavily upon published indexes, microfilmed Soundex indexes, CD-ROM databases, and other finding aids to help them locate a person in the census. Fortunately for us, technology has revolutionized the way that census research is performed. Today, census researchers are blessed to have the convenience of online, field searchable, indexes, and high quality digital images.

Yet, in spite of all the technological advances, researchers continue to experience difficulty finding certain people in the census. This class will expose participants to several techniques and strategies useful for overcoming the pitfalls and challenges of census research.

WHY CAN’T I FIND THEM IN THE CENSUS?
There are a number of reasons why researchers might experience some difficulty finding a person in the census. Consider the following:

• You’re searching for the wrong name

• The person’s name has been misspelled

• The person is residing in a different locality than expected

• The person deliberately gave falsified information to the census enumerator

• The informant, possibly a child or neighbor, was misinformed

• An indexer made a transcription error

• The census record was illegible (smudges, inkblots, tears, etc.)

• The index is not an every name index

• The online census database is incomplete

• There are missing census schedules

Too often inexperienced researchers are quick to conclude that a person was missed entirely by census enumerators, when in fact, they were not. Yes, it is true that for any given census year there was a significant portion of the U.S. population who, for some reason or the other, were not included in the official count. However, in spite of this statement, the likelihood that a person was overlooked or missed by census enumerators still remains relatively low.

For increased success finding people in the census, always assume that a person was enumerated, and then employ every possible means, strategy, and technique to find them. If after an exhaustive search a person is not found, consider suspending the search for a season, only to resume it at a later date. Postponing the search will often give the researcher a chance to gain some additional insights and perspective necessary for solving their unique problem.

TECHNIQUES &amp; STRATEGIES
Below are several techniques and strategies that experienced researchers rely upon to overcome difficulties finding people in the census.

1. Select a Specific Census to Search
Most online census providers allow users to search multiple genealogical databases at a time. While this feature may seem like a convenience, it can be problematic, forcing users to waste valuable time sifting through enormous amounts of data in order to find a particular person. When at all possible, avoid the temptation to search all databases at once. Instead, focus efforts on a specific census database such as the 1900 U.S. federal census.

2. Begin a Search with Minimal Information
One of the most common mistakes users make when searching census databases is entering too much information into the search criteria fields. This method of searching eliminates the potential of any results being returned. Researchers should start most searches with minimal information such as the person’s name and place of residence. If there are too many results, then refine the search. Adding additional information will help narrow the search results.

3. Search for Exact Matches
Web sites such as FamilySearch Record Search and Ancestry.com allow users to search for “exact matches only.” This feature helps eliminate unwanted search results. If the option is not selected, the user may have to wade through an overabundance of results. Supposedly, these results are ranked according to relevancy, but that relevancy is not always apparent to the user.

4. Search by Surname and Location
Sometimes researchers know where a person was living, but traditional searches fail to produce the desired results. When this happens, restrict the search to a specific state, county, district, or town and then search by surname only. In many instances, a slight deviance in the given name is the cause of the problem. The best research tactic for employing this method is to start at the lowest level of jurisdiction, such as the town, and work up to the county or state.

5. Search by Given Name and Location
Census enumerators or indexers may have recorded a person’s given name correctly, but misspelled their surname. Often given names are indexed accurately while surnames are completely and utterly butchered. That’s because most indexers recognize common given names, but struggle sometimes deciphering unfamiliar surnames.

To overcome this shortfall, consider restricting a search to a specific state, county, district, or town and then try searching by given name only. Common given names are likely to yield far more results, so it may be necessary to add some additional pieces of information, such as a date or place of birth, to narrow the results.

6. Try a Soundex Search
Soundex is a method of indexing names by their phonetic sound rather than exact spelling. This can be helpful to researchers trying to identify persons whose surnames vary slightly in spelling such as Stewart and Stuart. Most search engine algorithms incorporate Soundex principles. Ancestry.com users can select the Soundex option from among the search criteria fields. The option only appears when the “exact matches only” box is checked.

7. Don’t Rely Solely on the Soundex
Using the Soundex search option, when available, does not guarantee that all of the alternate spellings of a surname will be returned. For instance:


 * Names that sound alike do not always have the same Soundex code. For example, Huff (H100) and Hough (H200).
 * Names that sound alike, but start with a different first letter, will always have a different Soundex. For example, Curl (C640) and Kearl (K640).
 * Names with silent letters code differently. For example, Beau (B000) and Beaux (B200).
 * Names with prefixes may or may not have been coded with the prefix. For example, Van Cleve may have been coded (V524) or simply (C410) for Cleve.
 * Sometimes names that don’t sound alike have the same Soundex code. For example, Powers (P620) has the same Soundex code as Pierce, Price, Perez, and Park.

8. Use Wildcards
Some search engines allow users to use special symbols called “wildcards” to replace an unknown letter or letters in a word. This allows users to identify multiple variations of a name. Typically, users must provide at least three characters in order to use a “wildcard.” The two most common wildcards are an (*) and (?).

An asterisk (*) replaces zero or more characters. So, if a person entered Mar* in the first name field, they might get results for Mary, Maria, Mariah, Martha, Margaret, etc.

A question mark (?) replaces exactly one character. So, if a person entered Sm?th in the last name field, they might get results for Smith and Smyth. Wildcard searching can be most useful when searching for first name variations.

9. Become Familiar with Nicknames
It's not uncommon for families to provide census enumerators with their formal birth names in one census, and then provide them with a nickname in another. This happens all the time, therefore don’t be surprised to find Mary listed in the census as Polly, Alexander as Alex or Al, and Elizabeth as Betsy, Bessie, Beth or Eliza. Researchers are encouraged to become familiar with common nicknames. For an excellent list of traditional nicknames, go to the FamilySearch Wiki (http://wiki.familysearch.org) and search for the article entitled, “Traditional Nicknames in Old Documents – A Wiki List.”

10. Search for Middle Names
As with nicknames, in many areas of the world it is not uncommon for family and friends to refer to a person by their middle name, rather than their first name. For example, a North Carolina family listed all of their children by first name in the 1870 census and then by middle name in the 1880 census. Most people wouldn't even recognize them as the same family! A notable reminder, that when searching census records, the possibility exists that a person was recorded by their middle name, a baptismal name, or perhaps some other alternate name.

11. Search for Initials
Sometimes census enumerators were just plain lazy! Instead of recording a person’s name they may have only record their initials. For instance, the enumerator of the 1850 census of Socorro, Valencia County, New Mexico Territory recorded only initials for approximately 70% of all the towns’ inhabitants. Remember, initials may have been used for first name, middle name, or both.

12. Search for Other Family Members
Sometimes it is easier finding a family member in the census than it is finding a particular person of interest. When every name indexes are available, try searching for a person’s parents, siblings, spouse or children. This is an excellent strategy for finding people in the census, especially if the person has a common first and last name, such as Elizabeth Jones, and another family member has a unique name, like Theophalas Jones.

13. Search for Neighbors
If persons or families resided in the same place for an extended period of time, or if religious groups or community clusters migrated to new areas, then searching the census for neighbors can be an effective strategy for finding those elusive ancestors. Census records, land records, and city directories are wonderful resources for identifying a person’s neighbors. When employing this strategy with census records, be sure to check several pages before and after an ancestor’s entry for all of the neighbors.

14. Leave Out the Name Entirely
When all else fails, forego the name and search by other known facts. Using other criteria such as a person’s gender, race, residence, and date and place of birth can yield positive results.

15. Search Multiple Online Census Databases
Sometimes it’s advantageous to search different online indexes. A name that may have been indexed incorrectly at one online provider‘s Web site may actually be indexed correctly on another. The following Web sites (includes subscription Web sites), have online indexes to various U.S. federal census records:


 * Ancestry.com $
 * pilot.FamilySearch.org
 * Footnote.com $
 * HeritageQuestOnline.com $

All of the above Web sites are available for public use at the Family History Library.

16. Search Published Indexes
Don’t forget about the thousands of census indexes produced by steadfast volunteers and commercial enterprises. Many of these indexes are available in print, microfiche, CD-ROM, and on the Internet.

The Family History Library has an outstanding collection of census indexes. To find out what resources are available, do a “Place Search” in the Family History Library Catalog and then look under the topic “Census.”

Thomas Kemp’s American Census Handbook (FHL book 973 X23k.) is another superb resource for identifying pre-1930 census statewide and county indexes.

17. Browse Page by Page
When all else fails and desperation sets in, perhaps it’s time to consider browsing the census page by page. For small districts or towns this option is quite feasible. Large cities, on the other hand, would be a monumental undertaking. Although not desirable, and in some cases unadvisable, this method of searching does work.

18. Keep a Research Log
Never under estimate the value of a research log. Well documented and detailed research log entries help to prevent future duplication of efforts. Since census research often requires multiple approaches to a particular problem, a research log is absolutely an essential component.

When using a research log for keeping track of census research, be sure to record the date of the search, the name of the online census provider, the specific database searched, each locality explored, and all variations in search criteria. Remember, both positive and negative findings should be recorded.

SUMMARY
Everyone at some point or the other will experience a measure of difficulty finding a particular person or family in an online census database. When this happens, don’t despair. Such is the nature of working with online materials. Stick with it for a while longer. Before conceding defeat, throwing in the towel, or giving up all hope that a person or family will ever be found in the census, try incorporating these strategies and techniques. They work! Perhaps they will work for you.